Most writing prompts across all of the 50 states look very much alike. They have a similar structure, they use similar language, and they involve similar situations. While it’s true that writing prompts do change across grade levels, it’s also true that fourth grade writing prompts looks quite similar to high school writing prompts. In fact, the “writing situation” may be exactly the same, but with more complex language and writing requirements for high school students.

After learning some tips and tricks regarding the writing prompts found on state writing assessments, be sure to get 114 pages of free State Testing Released Writing Prompts here. Also, if you are looking to bring about true writing success for elementary students or struggling middle school writers, be sure to check out the “Pattern Based Writing: Quick and Easy Essay” page.

State writing assessments usually ask for one of these eight types of writing:

1) Narrative (A realistic story or an imaginative story)

2) Expository (Explain + Inform = Expository)

3) Persuasive (This is expository writing with an agenda.)

4) Inform (The facts… just the facts!)

5) Imaginative (This is actually a narrative.)

6) Descriptive (Descriptive writing tasks are less common than the above types of writing.)

7) Summarize (Read a passage and then summarize what you have read.)

8) Respond to Literature (Read a passage and then answer the question using evidence from the text. This kind of writing is usually a little bit expository and a little bit persuasive.)

Note: In the collections of released writing prompts mentioned above, there are few examples of prompts for “Summarize” and “Respond to Literature.” As such, I have provides a couple samples of these prompts at the bottom of this page.

Prompt Length and Structure

Most state writing prompts will be two or three sentences. (This is especially true in elementary school.) Even though the prompts are quite short, they are often written in multi-paragraph form. Each sentence is written in a separate paragraph. In other words, each sentence will be written on a separate line.

Naturally, the wording and the requirements of the writing tasks get a little more complex with each grade. That being said, most prompts can be used across many different grades with only slight modifications to the language of the prompt.

The Two Parts of the Writing Prompt

Most writing prompts contain two parts. These two parts are:

1. The writing situation – The writing situation gives a little background on the topic that students will be writing about. Example: Many people own pets.

2. The writing task – The writing task contains the specific directions. These directions will often include keywords that identify the “mode of writing” being asked for. Example: Write a persuasive essay convincing your principal to extend recess time.

Some states have short 1-2 sentence prompts, while other states have longer 5-8 sentence prompts. Here is a fourth grade writing prompt from the Kentucky state writing assessment. It is six sentences, which is quite long for a fourth grade writing prompt. Kentucky seems to have longer prompts than most states. (Note: Even in high school, few writing prompts are longer than 6-8 sentences.)

Example: Kentucky – 4th Grade Writing Prompt (6 sentences)

Situation: The local newspaper is having a “Good Friend” contest.  To enter your friend, you must think of an event in your life when your friend did something with you or for you that showed what a terrific friend he or she is.

Writing Task: Select your friend.  (Remember, a friend could be a child your age or a grownup.)  Choose an event that shows how your friend is a good friend to you.  Write a letter to the newspaper that tells about that event so that people will know why your friend deserves to win.

Keywords for Writing Prompts

As mentioned, most writing prompts have a similar structure and use similar language. As such, certain words will be found in most every writing prompt. These words are almost always performing the same job. For example, if you see the word “principal” in a writing prompt, you can be 99% sure it is going to be a persuasive writing task.

We all know that keywords are often used to trick students, so don’t read too much into them. However, at least one of the keywords below will be found in most every prompt. It is worthwhile to point out these types of words and phrases and have students learn to spot them.

Writing Situation Keywords

• Imagine one day (Narrative)
• Imagine that (Narrative)
• Imagine you have (Narrative)
• Think about (Narrative or Expository)
• Think of someone (Inform or Expository)
• Think of a time (Narrative)
• What is your favorite (Expository)
• Your school principal is considering (Persuasive)
• Your school has some (Persuasive)
• Your school is (Persuasive)
• It is important that people (Persuasive)
• Sometimes classrooms (Narrative or Expository)
• You suddenly realize (Narrative)
• Pretend that (Narrative)
• Have you ever (Narrative)
• Everyone has a favorite (Inform or Persuasive)
• Your school newspaper is (Persuasive)
• Your parents want to (Persuasive)
• If you could be (Narrative or Expository)
• Select a (Inform)
• Identify a (Inform)
• Most people (Inform)
• Many public places do not permit (Persuasive)
• Do you agree or disagree? (Persuasive)
• Suppose that you (Narrative)
• Most students have a (Expository)
• Everyone enjoys (Expository)
• Think about the kinds (Inform)
• You have been named (Narrative)
• Your principal (Persuasive)
• The students at your school (Persuasive)
• Based on the story (Respond to Literature)

Writing Task / Writing Directions Keywords

• Write a story (Narrative)
• Describe it (Descriptive)
• Your assignment is Write about this person (Inform or Expository)
• Write to explain why (Expository)
• Explain what animal (Expository)
• Make up a story (Narrative) Tell a true story (Narrative)
• Explain the (Expository)
• Write an article for (Inform or Expository)
• Write a persuasive letter (Persuasive)
• Write a narrative about (Narrative)
• Write to persuade your classmates (Persuasive)
• Write a letter to (Persuasive)
• Write a persuasive essay (Persuasive)
• Write a speech to convince (Persuasive)
• Urge your readers (Persuasive)
• From your own experience, tell about (Narrative)

Intended Complexity and Confusion

Memorizing keywords is rarely a good use of time. State tests are usually sophisticated enough to discourage these types of shortcuts. For example, narrative writing prompts often use the word “imagine,” however, many other kinds of prompts also use that word as a set up for the situation.

Example: Imagine you have just been elected class president. Write a letter to your fellow students urging them to keep the schoolyard clean.

This example shows a persuasive writing task, yet uses the word “imagine” in describing the situation. Many students associate the word “imagine” with a story. One can be sure the wording is no accident.

Another monkey wrench thrown at students is that writing prompts in state writing tests often have students write for a transactive purpose. A transactive purpose is authentic writing with a real-world purpose.

For example, many state writing tests require students to write a letter to someone or write an article for the school newspaper. (Note: The prompt above asks students to write a persuasive letter. Many teachers may teach letter writing and they may teach persuasive writing, however, it never occurred to them to have students write a persuasive letter. Of course, it shouldn’t make a difference, yet it does.) Transactive purpose!

Response to Literature and Summarize Writing Prompts

As promised, here are a few examples of “respond to literature” and “summarize” writing prompts. Be sure to get the 114 pages of State Testing Released Writing Prompts here. Once again, you won’t find many examples of “respond to literature” and “summarize” writing prompts even in those 114 pages.

Respond to Literature Prompts

Here are three examples:

1) Read the story. What lesson does the author want the reader to learn? Be sure to use specific examples from the passage to support your answer.

2) Based on the story “When the Tiger Comes Home to Roost,” how can the reader tell that life in the jungle is dangerous? Use specific examples from the passage to support your answer.

3) Do you think “The Most Important Question” is a good title for this story? Why or why not? Use details from the story to support your answer.

Write a Summary Prompt

Write a summary of the article. Be sure to:

• state the main idea or ideas of the article
• tell the important details that support the main idea
• use your own words when writing your summary .

If you want your students to be prepared for state testing – this year and every year – check out Pattern Based Writing: Writing Success for Elementary and Middle School Students!

• Is your instruction geared to helping your students become the next great American novelist?
• Is your primary goal to make sure that your students never leave a dangling participle or split an infinitive?
• Do you hope to develop a passion for writing?
• Is your goal to help develop the writing skills your students will need to be successful in middle school and high school?

All of this is much more likely if your students learn how get an assignment… break it down, organize their thoughts and then quickly start and finish the assignment. There should be very little hesitation from start to finish. These skilled and confident writers have the ability to write fast… and get the assignment done.

Every year I teach much more than what I just described, but first I get students ready for success by creating fluent writers who can… write fast.

Writing Fluency

According to studies (among them the National Reading Panel’s report on “Teaching Children to Read”) fluent readers tend to good readers. Fluency is one of the five important areas that bring about reading success. That makes sense. In fact, it also makes sense in writing. Fluent writers will likely be good writers. My experience is that fluent writers also make happy students! So much of school… involves writing.

Portfolios vs. a Timed Writing System for Monitoring Student Growth

Portfolios have many great benefits… and I am not against them in any way. However, portfolios do not show objective apples to apples comparisons. They are apples to oranges comparisons… and often apples to hamburgers comparisons.

First, and foremost, different amounts of time allowed produce different results. Kids know this when looking at portfolios. Somewhere in the back of their mind they know these are not apple to apples comparisons… so they are not really sure exactly how much they have progressed.

You may have heard the old musing that a monkey left in a room with a typewriter for eternity will eventually type out “Hamlet.” Let’s face it… eternity is a long time. Students don’t have an eternity to get an assignment done. Students also know it makes more sense to do good work quickly instead of spending an eternity trying to get one writing assignment perfect.

Furthermore, kids don’t want to spend all day on their homework. They don’t want to be the last one finished… every single day. Show students ways to become efficient writers… and they are happy.

The timed writing system I use is a high-octane portfolio system where students see real and objective growth. It’s a simple system that quickly lets students compare apples to apples.

The Timed Writing System: Principal Approved!

Using this system my bulletin board always shows excellent and objective student progress. It was so successful that my principal once suggested (or requested) that I put it back up when I had taken it down and was maintaining the timed writings in a portfolio as compared to being displayed.

The way I use the timed writing system has changed a little with the creation of the “Pattern Based Writing: Quick and Easy Essay” system. However, this timed writing system is very effective with or without “Pattern Based Writing.”

Before “Pattern Based Writing” the progress in the students’ writing was always steady and consistent. Over the course of a year, the progress was substantial, and admirable. It was a very accurate representation of the gradual, consistent progress that can be achieved with good writing instruction, and a lot of hard work!

Now, I get the results A LOT faster. Within a month most elementary and remedial middle school writers will be saying, “I can’t even read what I was writing before.”

Of course if your students aren’t making great progress in their writing… this timed writing system will reveal that as well. If this is the case… I would suggest you get “Pattern Based Writing: Quick and Easy Essay.”

The Timed Writing System Directions

1. Students do a 5-minute prewriting and a 20-minute essay.
2. Staple each student’s first timed writing to a piece of construction paper and post them on a bulletin board using pushpins so that they can easily be removed and updated. (Most years I have students illustrate a picture that goes side by side next to the writing on the same piece of construction paper.)
3. After a certain amount time, and after a certain amount of instruction, we do another timed writing. Staple the new writing to the front of the old. Students evaluate their progress and then the writing is returned to the bulletin board.

Simple Benefits

You may be surprised how simple the system is. You’re right, it is. I created this simple system very early in my teaching career. Teachers would ask, “Why are you timing the writing?” I can’t say I was aware of the term “writing fluency” but I did know that the students I taught MUST write faster in order to have success in school.

What I discovered was that when students see OBJECTIVE progress… progress they can see with their own eyes… without anyone having to point it out in a “manipulative” way… they begin to like writing more… and they are willing to invest more.

All teachers want their students to see growth. Quite simply, students become motivated when they see growth. However, “you telling them” is not the same as “them telling you.” Do you have a system where students gleefully proclaim the growth… without being prodded? If not, give this “Timed Writing System” a try! Also be sure to check out the complete writing program.

Deciding on and Giving the Assignment

Step 1: Spend time on the computer clearly outlining the assignment. You may want to include a rubric detailing how the report will be graded and detailing what is expected. Give detailed directions on how you expect students’ sources to be cited and exactly how you will determine what you consider to be plagiarism. Be sure to discuss exactly what the report must cover along with the formal style that you may expect. Give each student a printed copy of this.

Researching Main Ideas and Sub-Topics

Step 2: Have students find sources of information for their subject. (Library, internet, encyclopedias, textbooks)

Step 3: Students now quickly skim and scan their resources getting a quick overview of their entire subject. Students need to learn the information as they research the material. Writing the report in their own words is hard to do if they don’t understand the material. (Teach students how to avoid plagiarism while they are young. Learning the material as students research helps students write their report in their own words.)

Step 4: Have students use a separate sheet of paper for each of their sources. At the top of each sheet of paper have students write the bibliography information for one source that they will be using.

Step 5: Students now skim and scan each source writing important big picture main ideas and main sub-topics which they feel they could build a report around. They should put a strong focus on headings, chapter titles, and table of contents. Have them write these ideas down in their own words by paraphrasing.

Outlining and Organizing

Step 6: Have students look over their sheets of paper that have all their big picture main ideas and sub-topics. Have them decide which main ideas and sub-topics they will want to build their report around. (Continue to urge students to learn the material.)

Step 7: Now students build a perfect puzzle of main ideas and sub-topics which will outline their report. In other words, they create an outline of what they want to focus on in their report. (It’s okay if they decide they need to change some of their main ideas and sub-topics as they continue to research their subject.) 

Researching for Facts

Step 8: Now students research and take notes. They can continue to use the same sheets of paper that they have their main ideas on, OR they can use an index card for each main idea or sub-topic. If you use an index card with the main ideas you need to be sure to mark which source you got your information from. Students do not write their notes in complete sentences. Have students write their notes in “Frankenstein Writing.” (Nile River – 4185 miles long – longest river in world) Sounds like Frankenstein, doesn’t it? Frankenstein writing is fast, and it makes sure students will later write their report in their own words.

Writing the Report

Step 9: Students follow their outline and use their notes to write their report. Students can research more if needed, but no using books when writing the report. Make sure students understand how to give credit to their sources of information. Students should also understand how to write a proper introduction, body, and conclusion for their report.

Step 10: Students create a bibliography page giving credit to all of their sources of information.

Proofreading and Editing

Step 11: For proofreading and editing, it’s best to give a short cooling off period so students will be able to look at all of their hard work objectively. If students hold off for 1-3 days, they will do a much better job.

Step 12: Students proofread and edit their report.

Step 13: Recopy for a fabulous report! (This may not always be a great use of time. However, sometimes it’s good for students to see a fantastic final copy on nice white paper.)

Sharing and Displaying

Step 14: Share! Students read their entire report to at least one other person. Also have an “Author’s Chair” where students can read a part of their report to the entire class. 

Step 15: Display! There are lots of ways to display reports. You can put them up on the bulletin board. You may want to put them in a binder to create a class book or have students create a cover for their own report and you have a classroom library! You may want to show them off when it’s time for back to school night, parent conferences, or open house. Consider all this before you send them home.  

Fantastic report! Great job!

Since calling a bottom on the stock market on March 5th, 2009 during one of the worst financial crises in history I’ve received quite a few emails from people that read my post at “The Elementary Educator” blog. They seem to be impressed.

I’ve only brought it up in relation to “Pattern Based Writing: Quick & Easy Essay” because it’s been my passion for both teaching and studying patterns that has led to the creation and effectiveness of this writing program, as well as being able to see things clearly when our country was in a time of crises.

The “A, B, C Sentence” in Pattern Based Writing is directly connected to one of the most famous of all patterns in the stock market which is called an “A, B, C Patten.” The A, B, C Pattern simply lets you see things clearly. I wanted to be able to make my students be able to see things clearly in their writing, and the “A, B, C Sentence” worked like nothing I had ever seen before.

I bring it up because… I want people who are considering “Pattern Based Writing: Quick & Easy Essay” to know that this is a truly unique writing program that gets amazing results. It’s not what you think… and it works better than you can imagine.

When I made the post on “The Elementary Educator” blog, I had nothing to lose. If I had been wrong, who would have blamed me? But it turns out that depending on what market you look at it was within ONE or TWO days from the actual bottom.  This means ONE or TWO days from the bottom of a financial crisis that had been going on for 1 ½ years!

I’m not in the habit of making predictions, and that will likely be my “prediction of a lifetime.” Also please note that in my prediction I use the word “probably” and “probability” quite a bit. I didn’t “know,” but I felt so strongly that this was the very bottom that I knew I should put it in writing.

Basically… I’m a teacher… and I’ve created a writing program that helps kids visualize an entire essay in their mind before they even start writing.

How I Made My Call for a Market Bottom and a Brighter Future

You can find my market prediction by doing a Google search for “Paul Barger One Teacher’s Prediction.” I wrote this prediction on another teacher’s blog (mrpullen.wordpress.com) in response to their rather bleak prediction. (Scroll to the bottom of their page where I added my comment to their blog.)

For me, their bleak prediction was the first piece of the puzzle. As the weeks passed I could see continued pieces of the pattern coming together. Finally, I was quite sure that “this is the bottom,” so I went on record.

A Little Bit about Patterns

Patterns help you see and understand what is going on. Here are my favorite two examples of what I would call the power of patterns.

In the movie “A Beautiful Mind” there is a part where he looks up and points out all the beautiful patterns shining in the night sky. Most people think, “How great it would be to see the world that way! What a gift!” The truth is we all have the ability to see the world that way. We all have a beautiful mind…

By the end of the Pattern Based Writing program, students have the ability to see writing just the way that the character in the movie was able to look up at the stars and see the constellations. It’s all clear. They understand what they are doing, and where they are going in their writing. Total control makes writing fun!  

Blink- The Power of Thinking Without Thinking

In the book “Blink- The Power of Thinking Without Thinking” the author, Malcolm Gladwell’s basic premise is about how our first impressions and our intuitions are actually our amazing and natural gift of being able to instantly decode and process patterns.

Pattern Based Writing leads to writing in an organized and beautiful nature without really even having to think about it. It’s kind of like what Malcolm Gladwell describes.

It’s like teaching an artist some patterns, and then watching them create new patterns using those patterns. (Pattern Based Writing does not lead to “rote writing.” It actually gives students the control to do to their writing what Picasso did to his painting. And they do!)

Patterns in Language and the Stock Market

I learned patterns in both NLP (neuro linguistic programming) and the patterns in the stock market. Between these two subjects I’ve studied just about every single kind of pattern found in science, nature, art, and in language.

I’ve read LOTS of books on patterns in the stock market and in NLP. (I’d be embarrassed to tell you how many…) NLP is VERY pattern intensive and is most famously known for it’s in depth study of visual, auditory, and kinesthetic learning styles. I have to admit that I was shocked to find the kinds of advanced language patterns found (and hidden) in language.

It’s quite amazing that you can tell by listening to the words a person is using if they are in a visual, auditory, or kinesthetic learning mode.

Language is amazing, and you can be sure that CEO’s, lawyers, and presidents have long SEEN the power of language!

Pattern Based Writing: Quick & Easy Essay is the first step in opening up a new universe for students and teachers!

Stock Market Prediction

Along with organization, ideas are the other trait that Paul B. Diederich felt deserved greater weight.

Good prewriting skills lead to good ideas. If students think the first idea that pops into their head is a good idea, it’s unlikely they will become effective writers or take great pride in their writing. Students need to understand that the first ideas that pop into their heads are just the tip of the iceberg.

Mass idea generation through prewriting makes this kind of thinking a habit. It’s not so much that students (and adults) must do prewriting for every single assignment they have, but they must be aware that they are not choosing from among just a few ideas, but that they are choosing from an unlimited number of possible ideas.

With the prewriting system I use students get in the habit of generating at least 80 unique ideas over a range of main ideas in anywhere between 5-10 minutes.

Developing the Habit of Exploring Endless Possibilities Before You Start Writing

I have a background in acting and the theater. A lot of actors will tell you that if you want to learn to act, you learn by doing theater. Acting classes are a poor substitute for real acting in the theater. Here’s why.

In acting classes you might rehearse a scene a few times, and you might perform the scene a few times. That’s it. You’re done. You think you have taken the part as far as you can.

However in the theater, you rehearse a part 4-5 days a week for 5 weeks. By opening night you have found layer upon layer that before lay hidden.

Six weeks later on closing night, you are almost embarrassed at how little you had understood both the character and the play on opening night. You realize how even on opening night you had just scratched the surface in understanding both the play and your character.

The next play you are in, right from the beginning you know that there are many, many layers that you can’t see at the moment. You know you don’t understand either the big picture or the subtle nuances that you will soon come to understand.

As such, you know to continuously seek new ideas and new interpretations. You learn new methods and new tricks for discovering different ways to uncover the hidden and complex possibilities that lay hidden in the words.

With each additional play you continue to learn how to more quickly uncover all the hidden possibilities. You learn that there are endless possibilities, some of which you will discover early, and some you will discover when it’s too late. But you get better and better, and faster and faster!

The Skill of Exploring All the Possibilities

Generating ideas is not something students should have a problem with. If they do have a problem coming up with lots and lots of ideas, it is most likely because they are not in the habit of coming up with LOTS and LOTS of ideas.

Students need to discover the “big picture” and the “fine details” early in the writing process. Don’t wait until it’s time to edit/revise to make it better. An effective prewriting system makes it better before students even start writing!

Frustrations with Prewriting

I have explored and experimented with many, many prewriting systems over the years. There are lots and lots of very creative prewriting ideas. Most of these prewriting ideas are not practical for students to use as a consistent prewriting system.

Graphic organizers are great. They are like math manipulatives for writing. However, they are rarely a practical resource that will help students get the job done. In fact, they are often more of a distraction than a problem solver. Students need a prewriting system that they can count on when they have work to get done.

Here are Eight Qualities of an Excellent Prewriting System:

1.      Quick, useful, repeatable, and practical.

2.      Improves students writing (I’ve seen prewriting systems that actually make children write worse!)

3.      A skill students can use and will use to get started writing and when they are stuck in their writing. (If the prewriting system is too complicated, students won’t use it. The prewriting system needs to be so accessible that students will naturally use it when they are stuck.)

4.      Will not distract children or prevent children from starting the “real writing.” The real writing is the part that people are going to read and for which they will be graded. (Some prewriting systems can be like an art project and prevent students from getting started on the real writing. They are fun and interesting, but not useful for everyday assignments.)

5.      Provides an opportunity for mass idea generation. (More ideas to choose from means better ideas get written on the paper.)

6.      Is easy for students to connect their prewriting to the actual writing. (There is an art to connecting prewriting to the actual writing. This art needs to be built into the prewriting system.)

7.      Helps students learn how to see both the “big picture” and the “fine details” of their subject or story.

8.      Student created. If the teacher has to “pass it out” it is not practical, and likely not allowed in many testing situations. As well, the student will not develop the self-reliance for organizing their own writing.

Pattern Based Writing: Quick & Easy Essay has a prewriting system which gets students in the habit of generating at least 80 unique ideas over a range of main ideas in anywhere from 5-10 minutes.

How has writing instruction changed over the last few decades? What are the most effective strategies for teaching writing? What is the difference between product and process when teaching writing? Which is more important? Read on to find out what some of the most important names in teaching writing research have to say!

Teaching Writing: Changing Views over the Years

The emphasis in writing instruction over the past forty years has shifted from product to process. This Digest will review the course and the primary features of this evolution.

In the early 1960s, the National Council of Teachers of English commissioned a study to find out what was known about the teaching of composition. The result was a report entitled “Research in Written Composition” by Braddock, Lloyd-Jones, and Schoer (1963), commonly known as “The Braddock Report.” The authors found only rudimentary understanding of the teaching of writing: “Some terms are being defined usefully, a number of other procedures are being refined, but the field as a whole is laced with dreams, prejudices, and makeshift operations” (p. 5).

FROM PRODUCT TO PROCESS: THE 1970S AND 1980S

Writing in 1986, Arthur Applebee pointed out that instruction in the past had been largely “prescriptive and product-centered,” stressing correct usage and mechanics while emphasizing “the traditional modes of discourse (narration, description, exposition, persuasion, and sometimes poetry).” However, the 1970s and 1980s saw “a groundswell of support for ‘process approaches’ to learning to write” (p. 95). Today, the five-step approach to the writing process is widely accepted, along with related activities such as brainstorming, journal writing, teacher/student conferences, and an emphasis on multiple drafts.

Looking back on the 1970s and early 1980s, Applebee found that three questions needed to be answered:

♦ How widely had they been adopted by that time?

♦ When adopted, how successfully were they implemented?

♦ When implemented, did they lead to noticeable improvement in student writing?

PROCESS APPROACHES IN THE 1970S AND 1980S

Although they dominated the professional literature, process approaches had not been fully implemented in all classrooms by the mid 1980s. Because less than half of student writing was done for the English teacher, assignments in English classes should not differ too much from other kinds of writing lest students “decide that what they learn in English is irrelevant to the rest of their writing” (p. 98). Furthermore, student writing too often focused on textbook material, with the emphasis on accuracy of recitation rather than on each student’s own thinking.

In 1986, Applebee found little use of process approaches to writing instruction. In particular, prewriting was often slighted and many papers did not progress beyond the first draft (p. 100). On the other hand, he did encounter terms such as “prewriting,” “revising,” and “editing” in textbooks, suggesting that increased use of such textbooks would lead to “more widespread attention to process-oriented activities” (p. 101). Applebee had also hoped to “develop a series of models of effective instruction” and to find evidence that efforts to use the process approach paid significant dividends. Instead, he found that he had been too optimistic; his studies pointed to “some serious problems in current conceptualizations of writing processes” (p. 102).

Some of these problems were rooted in the difficulties involved in helping students understand what real writers actually do. Often, activities included in process writing became separated from the purposes they were supposed to serve, preventing students from developing “a generalized conception of the ‘writing process’ that the writers used in all contexts” (p. 102). Other problems arose from the fact that the process approach is not suited to every writing project: Some may require extensive prewriting, while others may require more careful editing and revision. Because students often ignore the great diversity of writing tasks, “process-oriented instruction easily degenerates into an inappropriate and lockstep formula” (p. 102).

Obviously, process-oriented instruction is of little value unless it makes a difference in student writing. A study undertaken by Hillocks (1982) analyzed “the results of experimental studies of writing instruction published between 1963 and 1982″ (Applebee, 1986, p. 104). Hillocks considered four broad approaches: a) a product-oriented, teacher-centered mode of instruction; b) individualized instruction; c) natural process (an activity-based version of process-oriented instruction); and (d) the environmental mode, a structured process approach involving inquiry-based learning and group problem solving (adapted from Applebee, 1986, pp. 104-105).

Hillocks favored the “environmental mode” and said that the process-oriented approach was least effective of all. Applebee noted that each of the four approaches led to some improvement in writing achievement and that “the environmental mode that Hillocks champions is itself a version of process-oriented instruction and draws on a panoply of techniques he seems to be attacking” (1986, p. 105).

RECONCEPTUALIZING THE PRINCIPLES OF PROCESS INSTRUCTION

“Most instruction is based on the simple assumption that we can specify a curriculum by studying what experts do and teaching our students to do likewise” (p. 106). Process-oriented approaches were not effective in their early stages because they were based on mistaken notions of what writers do and of how the process should be taught. Applebee pointed out the need “to develop more adequate conceptualizations of both of these aspects of writing instruction” and specified the following criteria:

1. Writing processes must be reconstrued as strategies that writers employ for particular purposes.

2. For different tasks, writers will use different strategies, and for some tasks these strategies may involve no more than the routine production of a first and final draft.

3. More extensive writing routines must be recognized as problem-solving heuristics appropriate to work-in-progress; they are unlikely to be so useful in writing about things (or in ways) the writer already knows well. (Applebee, 1986, p. 106)

INSTRUCTIONAL SCAFFOLDING

Another important aspect of process writing is the concept of instructional scaffolding, based on the belief that “learning is a process of gradual internalization of routines and procedures available to the learner from the social and cultural context in which the learning takes place” (p. 108). New skills are learned as children work on tasks that might be too difficult to undertake alone. Parents or teachers can ask questions and rephrase children’s comments to provide focus and direction. In the classroom, “The scaffolding provided is embedded in the materials of instruction (textbooks, assignments, direct instructional activities) as well as in the more immediate interactions between teacher and student” (p. 109).

Finally, Applebee discussed several aspects of instructional scaffolding that “suggest some of the features that a more comprehensive reconceptualization of teaching will require”: (a) allowing students to take a more active role; (b) building on students’ knowledge while introducing challenging new material; (c) following a natural sequence of thought that helps students learn useful approaches to the task; (d) collaborating with students to help them solve problems; and (e) encouraging students to take increasing responsibility for their own learning (adapted from Applebee, 1986, p. 110).

Application of the preceding principles would result in more effective application of process-oriented approaches to writing.

♦ Students would be encouraged to choose their own topics whenever possible, and assignments would be expanded to allow students’ opinions and solutions to play a part.

♦ Teachers would become interested readers and skilled editors of students’ writing, not just evaluators.

♦ Emphasis would shift from students’ knowledge about writing to strategies and procedures they need to deal with more and more challenging tasks. (p. 111)

THE VIEW FROM THE 1980S AND 1990S

In the early 1980s, Hairston (1982) asserted that writing instruction had undergone a “paradigm shift” as a result of research in the preceding decades. Some of the elements in the new paradigm include focusing on the writing process, with teacher intervention as needed, and teaching strategies for invention and discovery. Furthermore, writing is evaluated according to how well it fulfills the writer’s intentions, and writing is also considered a recursive rather than a linear process. Finally, writing is viewed as a way of learning and developing and as a disciplined creative activity that can be analyzed and described (adapted from Hairston, 1982; cited in Graves, 1999, p. 13).

Thirty years after publication of The Braddock Report, Jensen (1993) followed up on its findings by asking a number of experts to respond to this question: “What is the single most important thing that we as a profession know now that we didn’t know 30 years ago about the teaching and learning of writing in the elementary school?” After reviewing the 16 responses received, she reached these conclusions:

♦ Writing in the early years is a natural “gateway to literacy.”

♦ All children can be writers.

♦ Understanding writing and writers means understanding complex and interrelated influences–cognitive, social, cultural, psychological, linguistic, and technological.

♦ We write so that both we and others can know what we think.

(Jensen, 1993; cited in Graves, 1999, p. 26)

Elaborating on the first point, Peter Elbow of the University of Massachusetts said that very young children “can write anything they can say, whereas they can read only a fraction of the words they can say.” Therefore, “writing is easier, quicker, and, in a sense, more ‘natural’ than reading–certainly more naturally learned” (Graves, 1999, p. 27). Concerning the idea that all children can be writers, Glenda L. Bissex of Northeastern University said that an expanded view of writing allows many more children to see themselves as writers. They include “not only the young poets and storytellers, but the inventive spellers who are working to understand and use our writing system, the children who write about dinosaurs and kittens” (p. 28).

Colette Daiute of the Harvard Graduate School of Education stressed that “gaining an interdisciplinary view of the myriad influences on writing will increase our ability to help children who have serious difficulties with literacy.” Susan Florio-Ruane of Michigan State University pointed out that “the forms and functions of literacy in school children’s lives transcend classroom reading and writing instruction.” We must consider “both the different home and community experiences children have around literacy and the nature (and limitations) of classrooms as places to learn and practice literacy” (Graves, 1999, pp. 28-29).

REFERENCES

Applebee, A. N. (1986). Problems in process approaches: Toward a reconceptualization of process instruction. In Petrosky and Bartholomae (Eds.), “The teaching of writing: Eighty-fifth yearbook of the National Society for the Study of Education”, Part II, Chapter 6. Pages 95-113.

Braddock, R., Lloyd-Jones, R., & Schoer, L. (1963). “Research in written composition”. Urbana, IL: National Council of Teachers of English.

Graves, R. L. (Ed.). (1999). “Writing, teaching, learning: A sourcebook”. Portsmouth, NH: Boynton/Cook.

Hairston, M. (1982). The winds of change: Thomas Kuhn and the revolution in the teaching of writing. “College Composition and Communication”, 33, pp. 76-88. In R. L. Graves, (Ed.), “Writing, teaching, learning: A sourcebook” (pp. 3-5). Portsmouth, NH: Boynton/Cook.

Hillocks, G. (1984). What works in teaching composition: A meta-analysis of experimental treatment studies. “American Journal of Education”, 93, 133-170.

Jensen, J. M. (1993). What do we know about the writing of elementary school children? “Language Arts”, 70, pp. 290-94. In R. L. Graves, (Ed.), “Writing, teaching, learning: A sourcebook” (pp. 25-32). Portsmouth, NH: Boynton/Cook.

Petrosky, A. R., & Bartholomae, D. (Eds.). (1986). “The teaching of writing: Eighty-fifth yearbook of the National Society for the Study of Education”. Part II. Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press.

Source: ERIC Clearinghouse

Author: Smith, Carl B.

I teach writing as a “how-to” activity. Everyone enjoys learning how to do something! So often, the skill of writing is taught as information. Students have little interest in the information surrounding good writing; however, they will give their full attention and double their efforts if they feel you are actually teaching them HOW TO WRITE WELL! While it’s true many students have a higher interest in being a sports or music superstar, one should not underestimate the power of the feeling that one is already an accomplished author. When students feel they are writing well across the curriculum, there is a paradigm shift.

The Pattern Based Writing: Quick & Easy Essay writing program does just that for aspiring elementary school writers and struggling middle school writers! It transforms children into accomplished authors!

Closely connected to this “how-to approach” is what is called authentic writing, or writing for a real-world purpose. The research says that students should be writing authentically, and they should be writing authentically across the curriculum. It’s easy to have students write authentically across the curriculum when you have competent writers. Are your students competent writers? Can your elementary and middle school students organize and write mini-reports and essays in under 30 minutes? Click here to find out how make it happen!

Now that we have our students writing authentically across the curriculum, let’s see what the research says about assessing student writing authentically across the curriculum.

Authentic Writing Assessment

In view of the role writing plays in people’s academic, vocational, social, and personal lives, the development of students’ ability to write is a main priority of schooling. Since educators can use writing to stimulate students’ higher-order thinking skills–such as the ability to make logical connections, to compare and contrast solutions to problems, and to adequately support arguments and conclusions–authentic assessment seems to offer excellent criteria for teaching and evaluating writing.

This digest discusses some of the ways authentic writing assessment can be used in education. Using the Illinois Writing Program as an example, this digest also looks at some of the goals, solutions, and experiences of a program that is implementing authentic writing assessment.

EMERGING IDEAS IN AUTHENTIC WRITING ASSESSMENT

New directions in authentic assessment are aimed at getting beyond writing as an isolated subject unto itself. The goal is to integrate writing into the teaching of all subject areas, including science and mathematics. For example, if mathematics instructors have students write explanations for their procedures for solving problems, the instructors can evaluate the students’ ability to perform the task without relying solely on the correct–or incorrect–numerical answer to measure achievement.

Literature teachers can use authentic assessment to help students discover the natural connections in understanding various themes, importance of settings, character development, comparisons, and contrasts of ancient and modern story plots. Students’ writing in response to reading is one of the most valid indices of whether the student has been able to derive meaning from the text. Many believe that traditional multiple-choice response formats cannot duplicate the thinking and constructing necessary to evaluate a piece of literature.

THE FORMAT FOR AN AUTHENTIC WRITING ASSESSMENT

An authentic writing assessment should reflect various types of writing as well as levels of complexity related to the task assigned in the prompt. For example, a writing assessment assignment can be:

♦ totally open-ended, where the student is asked to construct an essay either requiring or not requiring certain background knowledge

♦ limited to specific components of the writing process, such as planning, outlining, or even revising

♦ used for short answers which may be either a part of planning or an abbreviated check for a basic understanding of key points

Assessment formats are also related to the amount of time one has for the assessment.

An increasingly popular format is portfolio assessment, in which students complete a body of writing over a prolonged period of time. Portfolios typically include several types of writing, and teachers consider a student’s entire portfolio–not just single assignments–providing a more naturalistic approach to teaching and evaluation. As with authentic assessment programs in general, the drawbacks to portfolio assessment include technical issues of reliability for applying criteria across students and time.

AN EXAMPLE: THE ILLINOIS WRITING PROGRAM

The founders of the Illinois Writing Program are philosophically committed to integrating instruction and assessment. To accomplish this, their assessment specifications require:

♦ representing defined writing skills, status, and growth,

♦ verifying that the methods used to construct, conduct, and verify the assessment meet technical standards, and

♦ implementing an information network for classroom and district personnel to use test results to improve instruction.

To give a descriptive profile of a student’s command of fundamental techniques of clear writing, the program has a rating system with the following analytic criteria:

♦ Focus: Is the main idea, theme, or point of view clear and consistently maintained?

♦ Support/Elaboration: Are arguments and conclusions adequately supported and explained?

♦ Organization: Is the logical flow of ideas clear and connected?

♦ Conventions: Are standard English conventions (spelling, grammar, punctuation) properly followed?

The assessment also produces a focused, holistic score Integration which reflects how well the composition as a whole accomplished the assignment.

This rating system emphasizes stages of development and avoids pejorative classifications. For example, writing at the lower end of the scale is described as “not being developed” rather than being “poor” or “weak.”

The Illinois Writing Program which presents assessment results as a score profile is also designed to help teachers determine areas of instructional need. By instructing teachers on the use of the scoring system for assessment, the major emphasis becomes defining what the teacher expects students to be able to write.

TEACHER INVOLVEMENT IN THE PROGRAM

In Illinois, teacher workshops are held to teach the system as a model that may be modified to meet classroom needs. Participants are given an overview of the assessment system and then are introduced to each analytic feature. The teachers then practice scoring sample papers that represent the full scale of underdeveloped to developed writing. Teachers must not only understand the assessment, but also adapt their teaching methods to help students prepare for it.

Five years after the program began, more than 1,000 teachers have been trained with the writing assessment model. Survey and anecdotal information from the trainers indicate that teachers are overwhelmingly supportive and enthusiastic about the workshops and information tools they receive. This is especially true for elementary teachers who, for the most part, have never received instruction in teaching writing beyond grammar, spelling, and the Palmer Method of penmanship.

Positive results occur in writing instruction not only because teachers have received information that they can use in their classrooms, but also because they are in charge of the training. They have a vested interest and ownership in the entire project. Teacher trainers explain to workshop participants not only the mechanics of the system, but also the ways in which they have adapted and adopted the system for their own students.

ADDITIONAL READING

Chapman, C.W., Fyans, L.J., Kerins, C.T. (1984). Writing assessment in Illinois, Educational Measurement, 3, 24-26.

Chapman, C.W., (1989). Teaching to the writing test is O.K.: Integrating classroom instruction with assessment, Excellence in Teaching, 6, 9-11.

Chapman, C.W. (1991). Write On, Illinois! Springfield, Illinois: Illinois State Board of Education.

Illinois State Board of Education Student Assessment Section (1991, in process). Results of the 1990 language arts assessment, Springfield, Illinois: State Board of Education.

Quellmalz, E.S. (1984). Toward successful large-scale writing assessment: Where are we now? Where do we go from here? Educational Measurement, 3, 29-32.

Author: Chapman, Carmen

Source: ERIC Clearinghouse