Do you struggle with teaching writing? Do your students struggle with writing? Does their writing frustrate you? Does your writing instruction bore them? Do you believe there has to be a more effective way to teach writing? Have you tried different methods? Have you explored different theories? Do you believe that there must be a method or a theory… that works effectively for each and every student and for each and every teacher? Well, that time is near. I call it “The Ultimate Writing Curriculum.” My team of scientists and myself are currently working hard creating it.

This ultimate writing curriculum will take students from kindergarten all the way through twelfth grade. It will be an interactive software database guiding and monitoring each and every student enrolled in the program. This writing program will be both interactive and adaptive. It will incorporate grade-by-grade analysis, as well as student-by-student analysis. This ultimate writing curriculum will span all the subjects across the entire curriculum. Additionally, it will incorporate all state standards from across the nation, as well as incorporate all known theories, strategies, and ideas surrounding effective writing instruction. Yes, I am hard at work… and I do have a ways to go…

This software solution will allow for high-speed scanning of all student work. This software will be able to analyze all writing across a minimum of 1,052 natural traits of good writing. Of course, each and every one of the six traits of writing from the Six Traits of Writing model will be included. However, each trait will be broken up and dissected and then reformatted with additional criteria: modes of writing, grade level, ESL/ELL level, learning disabilities, strengths/weaknesses, GPA, and socio-economic environment (just to name a few.)

This software solution will allow for the input of work from each stage of the writing process. It will be able to monitor and evaluate each stage while incorporating the actual time that was spent at each stage of the writing process. It will also analyze every type of writing imaginable: note taking, brainstorming, journaling, free writing, poetry, academic writing, and creative writing (just to name a few.)

The purpose of monitoring, evaluating, measuring, and analyzing is to guide instruction. As such, this ultimate writing curriculum will be highly individualized. It will be able to meet, match, and even exceed students’ needs. The system will include high-tech biofeedback tests which will allow for accurate analysis of students’ natural learning styles, as well as their state of being. These tests will determine visual, auditory, and kinesthetic learning styles and will also incorporate the Myers Briggs Personality Test. It will analyze all these learning styles alongside the most proven theories surrounding effective writing instruction.

Since the first step of effective writing instruction is delivering assignments that contain high built-in motivation, all assignments will be individually computer generated providing challenging, yet highly motivating assignments. This ultimate writing curriculum will include a complete article database which will allow for appropriate grade level and skill level student research into most any subject or topic.

This article database will be integrated with a national curriculum database. As such, this article database will be an extension of each and every textbook in each and every subject. (All curriculums across the nation will be integrated within this system.) This article database will tailor articles to individual student needs based on reading ability and a multitude of other factors. All this means no more boring and unrelated writing prompts! Students will read, research, and respond to the topics they are just dying to write about; topics even their closest friends would not have guessed in a million years.

Although this ultimate writing curriculum is automated, it does allow for both teacher and student input. Both teacher and student will be able to override the system’s decisions a set number of times throughout the school year. This will have the effect of both guiding and training the computer.

Additionally, teachers will be able to emphasize strategies and theories they feel are important… and which they believe will be effective. Students will continually be providing information as to what their interests are, as well as their educational goals. Using this massive database of knowledge that will be developed over time, the system will make decisions designed to challenge and support areas of weakness and of strength. The computer will be able to determine when students are simply being lazy and when other more serious issues are involved.

This closed, dynamic system will constantly evaluate, grade, provide feedback, and assign remedial work… all in a nurturing way. As it is a computer, students will gladly accept this unbiased feedback which is free of emotion and judgment. This computer will have weekly conferences with each student about their writing and their progress. Students will be able to respond to suggestions in these discussions, and while doing so the system will evaluate each student’s attitude to the suggestions and adapt its feedback strategies. Additionally, the computer will review prior problem areas looking for patterns of struggle and resistance followed by success, and will remediate in a way which has been successful in the past.

This ultimate writing curriculum will spiral naturally, while always headed towards specific and measurable goals. Through its spiraling process, students will be introduced to all types, styles, modes, and genres of writing. Furthermore, this ultimate writing curriculum will spiral students toward their natural interests and abilities. The writing instruction will be in line with their strengths, as well as with their long-term college and career goals.

I am working on this ultimate writing curriculum night and day. (Just sorting through the multitude of writing theories is a full-time job in itself.) Phase 1 of creating this ultimate writing curriculum has involved determining what the foundations of good writing are… and then creating a framework which guarantees that all students will be able to achieve true writing success. The result of this first phase is “Pattern Based Writing: Quick and Easy Essay.” It provides the foundation and framework that all students simply must have. Studies show that it is perfect for all students in grades 2-6, and for remedial writing instruction in middle school. This pattern based writing program is the true foundation of writing success! Give it a try… (click here.)

Are you a true lover of poetry? Are you an avid and exceptional teacher of poetry in the classroom? If so… then this article is not for you.

This article is for the rest of us teachers who know that poetry has value… but with limited time and so much to cover… poetry needs to prove its case.

Poetry for Teachers Who Prefer Math and Science

Some have felt they were missing the point… or the value of teaching children to write poetry. It just wasn’t their style… and they thought they sounded kind of funny when they tried to explain the profoundness of poetry in being able to uniquely express the human condition.

These teachers understood that poetry could be fun, interesting, artistic, and beautiful. Great! But they wanted more than fun, interesting, artistic, and beautiful. There had to be some kind of “academic” reason for teaching poetry that students would understand and apply… beyond poetry.

Like many teachers, I myself suspected that poetry had the power to communicate to children what ordinary essay and report writing could not. I suspected poetry could be harnessed for academic gains and not just artistic revelry.

The goal for me with poetry was not to simply transform children into “poets” but also to transform them into “skilled and observant communicators.” I believed and dreamed… that poetry had the potential to help transform students writing… across the curriculum!

Here is what I discovered along the way…

Six Traits, Poetry, Patterns, and Communication

I’ve long felt that being a skilled communicator is among the most valuable assets that a person can possess. Even if a person ends up in a science or math oriented profession, being able to effectively communicate one’s ideas will likely have a larger impact on a career than the ideas themselves. A truly skilled communicator has complete mastery over the words they use and the meaning those words convey.

The “Six Traits of Writing” along with “Pattern Based Writing: Quick and Easy Essay” has transformed my teaching of poetry in the classroom. When teaching poetry I now achieve many goals that transfer over to all of the writing that my students do… across the curriculum.

Out of the six traits found in the “Six Traits of Writing” model it seems that there are three traits that are inherently intertwined with the teaching of poetry writing to children. They stand out for me because I find that I am able to communicate their concepts very effectively when teaching poetry… and the concepts learned transfer over into all the writing my students do. This makes teaching poetry fun… and a good use of time!

Three Traits of Poetry Writing Which Improve Student Writing… Across the Curriculum

1. Organization and structure - The most popular forms of poetry that children are taught all seem to have a very definite pattern and structure. They are powerful and compact patterns that create powerful rhythm and meaning. By putting focus on the structure and the pattern in these rather simple poems you can help children to see the organization and structure in much of what they will both read and write… across the curriculum. (If you have used “Pattern Based Writing: Quick and Easy Essay” with your students, you will find that these poems and the patterns found within them are almost a natural extension of the Pattern Based Writing program. Be sure to go to the “PatternBasedWriting.com” home page and see what I mean…)

2. Word choice and usage – The major poetry patterns have descriptive use of language built right into the pattern. Each word in student created poetry is carefully chosen and each word has a specific intent within the poem. Students often consider many choices for that one valuable word in that one specific position. When you have only 17 syllables for an entire poem… you have to be very picky and consider many different word choices… until you find the one that is just right! I’ve found it’s pretty easy to transfer this skill over to students’ essay and report writing.

3. Voice – Often a complete and unique voice is both started and completed in as little as 17 syllables! The most popular poems children are taught to write are powerfully condensed units of expression. It is easy to compare these short poems and clearly hear a unique voice in each one of them. When you compare a Limerick to a Haiku the shift in voice is… an easy teaching moment.

Getting the Most Out of Poetry

Poetry has a lot to offer in helping students to become artistic poets as well as successful students. Using a combination of “Pattern Based Writing: Quick and Easy Essay” and the “Six Traits of Writing” model will transform your teaching of poetry writing into both an artistic and academic endeavor!

Be sure to read “Popular Forms of Poetry to Teach Children” and discover over 15 different types and aspects of poetry that children just love!

1. Challenge students’ thinking and writing skills
2. Create interest in writing and inspire creativity
3. Get reluctant writers writing
4. Help students develop the habit of writing every day
5. Practice for writing assessments
6. You are giving a classroom assignment that involves writing

Kinds of Writing Prompts for Elementary and Middle School Writing

• Essay writing prompts – Students will explain something from their point of view. It will be explained as they see the world.
• Expository writing prompts – Students will produce writing in an explanatory or informative nature.
• Narrative writing prompts – Students will narrate either a personal story or a fiction story.
• Persuasive writing prompts – Students will take a stand and logically argue a position.
• Creative writing prompts – Students will use their imagination and enter the world of fantasy.
• Journal writing prompts – Students will explore their experiences, feelings, thoughts, and emotions… Students will explore who they are and the life they live.

Writing Prompts across the Curriculum

Often teachers think of writing across the curriculum simply as “giving an assignment.” When they are teaching social studies, they gave a social studies assignment, and now it’s science, so they will give a science assignment…

The truth is “A WRITING TEACHER” teaches writing:
1. So that our students may fall in love with writing.
2. So that WE get to read good writing.
3. So that our students may thank us when they receive their Pulitzer Prize in Literature.
4. So that our students will become effective communicators.
5. So that our students will write well across the curriculum, so that THEY will be HIGHLY SUCCESSFUL students!

Don’t wait for language arts to “teach writing.” Give “writing prompts” across the curriculum.

Tips and Tricks for Using Writing Prompts

1. Have a purpose or objective for giving the writing prompt. Be sure to read “How to Use Writing Prompts in Teaching Writing.”
2. Make the prompt simple, yet complex. This is what is at the heart being both engaging and compelling. Simple enough that they understand it and can write about it confidently, but complex enough that students will engage in new thoughts and new ways of thinking.
3. Vary the type and purpose of your writing prompts. Predictable is the opposite of compelling and engaging.
4. Be prepared. Do not create writing prompts on the spur of the moment.

Letting the Class Create the Writing Prompts: Pros and Cons

Pros:
• Kids will think of things that adults never would! (or at least in a way that adults never would)
• You get to learn more about what your students think about and what interests them.
• It is great fun to have students create the prompts. There is usually an air of excitement in the class and the discussion is almost always lively.
• It inspires students and engages the group. What they think about has value!

Cons:
• Can take on too strong a “voting” or “popularity contest” aspect.
• Not all the students will like the prompt, especially when the prompt is not coming from their inner circle of friends.
• Who exactly is in charge here? Students may start to wonder…
• Students may start to perceive it as busy work. “Boy, the teacher doesn’t have to do anything… and we just write and write and write…”
• The same ideas start to repeat themselves. Sometimes students change just one or two words from the last writing prompt.

My experience is that it is best to set a routine for letting students choose the writing prompts. You want to keep all the pros without any of the cons. (Kids like to know what they can expect.)
• From time-to-time
• Once a week
• Every day

Having Students Individually Choose their Own Topics to Write About: Pros and Cons

Pros:
• Gives student the freedom to develop their own writing voice and their own style of writing.
• Teaches self-reliance. Students must learn that often people are not going to tell them what to do. However, it is still their job to not only produce the work, but to also “wow them.”
• Students will likely choose a subject they are an expert in. This will give them confidence in their writing. They will likely develop certain writing skills quicker since they do not have to learn the information at the same time they are doing the writing.
• Many students enjoy the freedom. For many students, this is the way they will develop a true love for writing.
 
Cons:
• Some will want to write about the same thing every single time. If you don’t closely monitor their writing… many students will.
• Some students will prefer to write about rather superficial things without exploring any real “deep thoughts.” (Video game #1, video game #2, movie #1, video game #3, movie #2, TV show #1…)
• Students may perceive it as busy work. (Having students read it to at least one other person reduces this.)

When you are having students choose what they want to write about you really need to set up what you expect (and hope) the students will get from this. Students that love to write won’t need an explanation. Those that don’t love to write… yet… do need an explanation… and some inspiration…

1. Are your middle school students remedial writers or are they on grade level?
2. How do you bridge the gap between your remedial writers and your high achieving writers?
3. What are appropriate goals and objectives of middle school writing instruction?

The Six Traits of Effective Middle School Writing Instruction

Many students are ready for this kind of writing instruction. However, if your students are not, the question is, “What is the fastest way to get them ready for this?”

1. Students apply the skills of using both precise and descriptive language.
2. Students apply advanced levels of syntax and sentence structure.
3. Students apply the skills of precision in language, clarity in language, and unique expression in language.
4. Students develop the knowledge and skills of writing in a variety of genres and across the curriculum.
5. Students engage in deep analysis of many genres of writing and use evaluative rubrics in their analysis.
6. Students apply advanced language usage and sentence structure to essay writing and composition assignments.

Bridging the Gap between Remedial and High Achieving Middle School Writers

One of the greatest frustrations in teaching middle school writing is the wide range of academic skills that students in the same class possess. There is a much larger gap between the high achievers and students who are struggling when compared with both elementary school and high school students.

In elementary school the gap in student achievement is much smaller because there has been less time for the gap to grow. In high school students are essentially on different career paths and as such are in different classrooms. (Furthermore, the statistics on the national high school dropout rates are dismal. This does make it easier for high school teachers; however it is a national failure that we must address!)  

Three-Step Plan for Scaffolding and Remedial Instruction 

1. Get everyone on the same page.
2. Scaffold the new instruction.
3. Remediate with students who still struggle.

Your writing instruction needs to be accessible (inspirational and motivational) across a wide range of abilities!

With “Pattern Based Writing: Quick and Easy Essay” you will:
1. Quickly get everyone on the same page!
2. Easily remediate with students who still struggle!
3. NOW because ALL your students are engaged, scaffolding the new writing instruction actually WORKS!

Students must write across the curriculum; and I do not mean fill-in-the-blank workbook pages. Writing helps students process and organize information in a way that makes sense to them. As a new teacher, I felt my students should be writing more across the curriculum. I discovered that students’ writing skills were so poor that having students write across the curriculum was an exercise in frustration. It was an exercise in frustration for everyone involved – teacher and student alike.

I didn’t give up; and not giving up turned into a full-fledged quest. Though I developed an excellent methodology for teaching writing, I never felt it was a true solution. It was as though I was pushing instead of leading. In short, there was resistance and reluctance from students.

Quite by accident, I stumbled across a solution. I knew it was a solution because my students told me it was a solution. They said, “I can’t even read what I was writing before.” This accidental solution led to the creation of the Pattern Based Writing: Quick & Easy Essay writing program. If you are looking to improve your students’ writing across the curriculum, be sure to check out the program!

Now let’s find out what some of the most important names in teaching writing research have to say about connecting Social Studies and writing!

Improving Writing Skills through Social Studies

One of the more important aspects of recent educational reform efforts is increased attention to writing skills. Much of the current emphasis goes beyond the language arts curriculum into other content areas such as math, science, and the social studies. THE WRITING REPORT CARD: WRITING ACHIEVEMENT IN AMERICAN SCHOOLS, a recent study by the National Assessment of Educational Progress (NAEP), directly links writing effectiveness to development of skills in critical thinking. Furthermore, the NAEP study reports that only about one-fifth of students write adequately and most students have “difficulty organizing their thoughts coherently in writing” and “cannot express themselves well enough to ensure that their writing will accomplish the intended purpose” (Applebee, Langer, and Mullis, 1986, p. 11).

This ERIC digest discusses (1) recent research on the linkage between writing and learning, (2) successful approaches to teaching writing, and (3) suggestions for including an effective writing component in the social studies curriculum.

HOW IS WRITING LINKED TO LEARNING?

Research indicates that writing enhances learning in several ways:

♦ Writing requires knowledge and focuses thought. In order to write, students must have something to say. Therefore, students must acquire and present content (facts, generalizations, and concepts) when they write a social studies assignment or test response. However, students do not merely express knowledge by writing, they also discover knowledge. Writing is inherently an integrative process, combining the total intellectual capacities of the writer.

♦ Writing enhances critical thinking. Social studies educators recognize that higher-order thinking skills should be at the heart of our curriculum design and instructional strategies. A recently developed curriculum proficiency guide states, “The primary goal of social studies education…should be to help students develop the ability to make well-informed, well-reasoned decisions, and to act responsibly. Responsible decision-making requires practicing the skills of acquiring, evaluating, and using information for the purpose of identifying courses of action and predicting their possible consequences” (Indiana Department of Education, 1987, p.4). Lessons that emphasize writing can contribute significantly to achievement of this goal.

♦ Writing shifts the responsibility for learning away from the teacher and toward the student. Ability to write empowers students with a sense of efficacy and achievement. A written essay belongs only to the writer, not another student or the teacher. More importantly, writing encourages personal learning. Properly designed assignments require students to not only collect knowledge, but to determine which knowledge to retain, which to discard, and how to present it. Such choices may reveal as much about what students do not know (about the subject) as they do about what the students do know. However, this can serve as an excellent diagnostic tool for the teacher. Writing leads to more questions and to the discovery of connections between events, people, and ideas.

Clearly then, there is much to be gained from emphasizing more writing in the social studies classroom. The NAEP report indicates that social studies teachers use writing assignments more often than their science colleagues, but that the assignments are frequently short, one-sentence or even one-word responses. In many cases, these assignments are written in a teacher-prepared study guide or workbook. The use of writing assignments declines dramatically at the high school level, the years when acquisition and practice of higher-order thinking skills should receive most attention.

WHAT APPROACHES TO THE TEACHING OF WRITING IN THE SOCIAL STUDIES OFFER THE MOST PROMISE?

One of the most hotly debated current issues on the teaching of writing is whether to (1) focus on the finished product (the written essay) or (2) emphasize the process of writing with less attention to the final product. According to recent surveys of English/language arts teachers, the most accepted approach remains a focus on the product, the student essay. However, the process approach is rapidly gaining adherents and is the philosophical base for many of the writing workshops being held across the country for both language arts and other content area teachers. Social studies teachers who use the process approach generally applaud the results. However, since mastery of content is frequently the primary goal for writing assignments, the finished product approach still dominates in social studies and the other content areas.

For language arts teachers, emphasis on the more traditional approach means mastery of mechanical knowledge and skills. The content is either irrelevant or secondary to correct spelling, grammar, punctuation, and other aspects of composition. Though content becomes paramount, many social studies teachers feel obligated to evaluate the mechanics as well. As a minimal standard, students must demonstrate that they have acquired the appropriate factual information and can present it effectively. Teachers who emphasize creative and critical thinking frequently use assignments requiring students to compare and contrast, analyze, synthesize, and evaluate some aspect of the social studies content. Still, even for these teachers, writing is considered a product of learning, not a primary means of learning.

The process approach does not ignore the final written product because it is still used as a measure of student achievement. But using the process approach, particularly in the content areas such as social studies, indicates an awareness of the linkage between writing, thinking, and learning. Barry Beyer, a leading proponent of the process approach, describes the connections this way: “Writing produces both visible thought and a record of how we arrived at that thought. It yields a document that enables us to see what we know…The process of writing actually ends in a product which helps us refine our thinking and create new learning” (Beyer 1982, p.100).

The use of writing as a way of learning is based on research dating back to the early 1970s that examined the common steps and procedures that successful writers used. While these steps vary in number and are given different names by different researchers, they generally break down into four or five steps:

♦ The prewriting stage: Considered the most crucial by many specialists, this stage includes individual or group brainstorming to select a topic, identifying any particular needs of the audience, gathering information, determining the most appropriate purpose and style, and developing an outline or tentative plan.

♦ The drafting or actual writing stage: The student begins to write, knowing that he or she is producing a tentative product, one that will require assessment and revision.

♦ The revising stage: This stage and the previous one begin almost ltaneously. Students are encouraged to evaluate as they write and begin to make changes in both content and structure. The use of word processing equipment encourages the process approach to writing.

♦ The editing stage: After a draft of the writing assignment is produced, students review the document in light of decisions made during the prewriting stage. Form and structure become more important than content. Some advocates of the process approach recommend that students work together in groups at this point. Others give the classroom teacher a larger role in assisting the student in evaluating whether or not the content, style, and related goals have been met.

♦ The publishing or presentation stage: The student presents a final copy of what has been written to the intended audience.

WHICH OF THESE APPROACHES WORKS BEST?

The NAEP study did not find significant differences between the essays written by students in class where the teachers used the process approach and those who simply made the assignment and waited for the student to turn it in. However, the study did find that students who used elements of process writing (planning, revising, and editing) are more likely to be better writers. The report’s final recommendations call for writing instruction throughout the curriculum and the training of students in the use and understanding of the process approach.

For social studies teachers, the best approach appears to be a blend of the two approaches. The process approach seems to increase the amount of student writing and improvements in style and form. Additionally, students are more likely to acquire higher-order thinking skills. However, a tangible goal of student writing in the social studies is to demonstrate knowledge acquisition and understanding of individuals, issues, themes, and concepts in history and the social sciences. Social studies teachers who regularly use written assignments provide thier students with broader opportunities for acquisition of knowledge, intellectual growth, and personal satisfaction.

HOW CAN WRITING BE INCLUDED EFFECTIVELY IN THE SOCIAL STUDIES CURRICULUM?

The most effective method of using writing to both enhance learning and encourage creative and critical thinking appears to be the development and use of writing assignments that stimulate and challenge students. Four categories of assignments can be identified:

♦ Reporting: Students are directed to compile information with a minimum of critical or original thinking. Example–”Write a report on the outbreak and major events of the Spanish-American War.”

♦ Exposition: Students are asked to explain an idea, conduct a critical investigation, synthesize issues, or bring a fresh point of view to a problem. Example–”Write an essay to compare and contrast the views of U.S. citizens who wanted to annex the Philippines in 1898 and those who opposed the annexation.”

♦ Narration: Students are asked to tell a story, an anecdote, tall tale, legend, short story, drama, or vignette. Example–”Pretend you are a soldier with Teddy Roosevelt’s Rough Riders. Write an article for your hometown newspaper about the charge up San Juan Hill that combines some fiction with actual facts about the battle.”

♦ Argumentation: Students are asked to evaluate, defend or attack an idea or belief. Example–”After reading the speech by Senator Beveridge of Indiana supporting the annexation of the Philippines, write a speech supporting or attacking his position. Support your arguments.”

The recent NAEP study shows that students who write more, write better. Students who reported writing three or more reports and essays during a six-week period had higher achievement levels than students who reported doing no writing during that period. This finding, coupled with evidence that critical thinking and higher-order intellectual skills are nurtured by appropriate writing assignments, makes a powerful case for increasing the amount of student writing in the social studies. Development of a systematic approach to enhancing learning through writing in the social studies is likely to benefit all of us–students, teachers, and the society.

FOR MORE INFORMATION

Applebee, Arthur N., Judith A. Langer, and Ina V. S. Mullis. THE WRITING REPORT CARD: WRITING ACHIEVEMENT IN AMERICAN SCHOOLS. Princeton, NJ: National Assessment of Educational Progress, 1986. ED 273 994.

Applebee, Arthur N., Judith A. Langer, and Ina V. S. Mullis. WRITING IN THE SECONDARY SCHOOLS: ENGLISH AND THE CONTENT AREAS. Urbana, IL: National Council of Teachers of English, 1981. ED 197 347.

Banks, Beverly R. “Writing: A Tool for Learning in Social Science.” THE SOCIAL STUDIES REVIEW 23 (1984): 11-15.

Beyer, Barry K. “Using Writing to Learn Social Studies.” THE SOCIAL STUDIES 73 (1982): 100-105.

Fadiman, Clifton, and James Howard. EMPTY PAGES: A SEARCH FOR WRITING COMPETENCE IN SCHOOL AND SOCIETY. Belmont, CA: Fearon Pitman Publishers, Inc., 1979.

Goggin, William F. “Writing to Learn: A Message for Social Studies Teachers.” THE SOCIAL STUDIES 76 (1985): 170-173.

Indiana Department of Education. INDIANA CURRICULUM PROFICIENCY GUIDE: SOCIAL STUDIES. Indianapolis, IN (1987): 4

Neubert, Gloria A., and Sally J. McNelis. “Improving Writing in the Disciplines.” EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP 43 (1986): 54-58.

Pooler, Anne E., and Constance M. Perry. “Building Higher Level Thinking and Writing Skills in Social Studies.” THE SOCIAL STUDIES 76 (1985): 125-28.

Stotsky, Sandra. CIVIC WRITING IN THE CLASSROOM. Bloomington, IN: Social Studies Development Center, ERIC Clearinghouse for Social Studies/Social Science Education, and ERIC Clearinghouse on Reading and Communication Skills, 1987.

Author: Risinger, C. Frederick

Source: ERIC Clearinghouse