Adjective clauses (also called adjectival clauses or relative clauses) function as adjectives, which mean that adjective clauses modify nouns and pronouns.
Adjectives are found in two locations: before nouns (attributive adjectives) and as predicate adjectives.
» That blue boat is old. (blue = attributive adjective / old = predicate adjective)
In contrast, adjective clauses come after the noun they modify:
» We own a boat, which we bought when we were young and foolish.
Adjective Clause Facts
1. Adjective clauses are dependent/subordinate clauses that modify nouns and (occasionally) pronouns.
2. Adjective clauses (like all clauses) have both a subject and verb. In case you are wondering, one difference between clauses and phrases is that phrases don’t have a subject.
3. Adjective clauses modify nouns in many different locations. We find nouns in all of these places in a sentence: 1) subject, 2) predicate noun, 3) direct object, 4) indirect object, 5) object of the preposition, 6) appositive noun, and 7) direct object in phrases.
4. Adjective clauses begin with a relative pronoun or relative adverb. The relative pronoun functions as the subject or direct object in the clause. The relative adverb functions as an adverb.
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Adjective Clauses Begin with a Relative Pronoun or Relative Adverb
Adjective clauses are also called relative clauses because they all begin with a relative pronoun or relative adverb.
1. Relative Pronouns: who, which, that, whom, whose
2. Relative Adverbs: when, where, why
Let’s break these two groups of words down further!
1. Relative Pronouns that can Function as Both Subject and Object in the Relative Clause: who, which, that
2. Relative Pronouns that Only Function as an Object the Relative Clause: whom
3. Relative Pronoun that Should be Called Something Else: whose
4. Relative Adverbs: These Function as Adverbs in the Relative Clause: when, where, why
Sentence Analysis: Complex Sentences and Dependent Clauses
If a sentence has an adjective clause in it, the sentence is a complex sentence. For this reason, we will examine each sentence in two ways. We will examine:
1. The Complex Sentence Structure
2. The Dependent Clause Structure
Analyzing the Dependent Clause Structure
If you really want to understand grammar, you will pay special attention to each sentence’s dependent clause structure.
Complex sentences always have two clauses, which mean they have two subjects and two verbs: 1) a subject and verb in the main clause, and 2) a subject and verb in the dependent clause. Let’s take a look at how this works.
Complex Sentence: Example 1
Complex Sentence: The woman who bought the car is happy.
» Clause 1: The woman (subject) is (verb) happy.
» Clause 2: who (subject) bought (verb) the car = The woman (subject) bought (verb) the car.
» Analysis: Who is a relative pronoun, and it replaces the noun woman. Imagine the woman’s name was who. Statement: Who bought the car.
Complex Sentence: Example 2
Complex Sentence: The car that the woman bought is a Ferrari.
» Clause 1: The car (subject) is (verb) a Ferrari.
» Clause 2: that (direct object) the woman (subject) bought (verb) = the woman (subject) bought (verb) that (direct object) = the woman (subject) bought (verb) the car (direct object)
» Analysis: That is a relative pronoun, and it replaces the noun car. Although relative pronouns/adverbs begin an adjective clause, direct objects follow the verb.
Important Point: Although adjective clauses contain all of the syntactic grammatical parts that create a complete sentence, the order may be mixed up. This means we may need to rearrange the words to see things clearly. Additionally, we may need to play the substitution game to see the complete sentence.
Adjective Clauses: Restrictive and Nonrestrictive
We have two fundamental adjective clause categories: 1) restrictive and 2) nonrestrictive. Every adjective clause is one or the other.
Restrictive Adjective Clauses: Restrictive is a fair name for these types of clauses. These clauses all answer one of these two questions: Which one? What kind? Ex. The boat… Which boat? The child… Which child? The river… Which river? In short, restrictive clauses restrict, limit, and/or specify.
Nonrestrictive Adjective Clauses: Nonrestrictive is a poor name for these clauses. Telling what something IS NOT is a lousy way to name something. These clauses provide EXTRA INFORMATION about the noun that they modify. Although I frequently use the term EXTRA INFORMATION, the information in these clauses should not be extra or unnecessary in any way. In reality, these clauses are a highly effective way to combine sentences.
The Synonyms
Unfortunately, we have no laws against creating synonyms, which means that we must teach our students that all of these synonyms refer to the same concepts.
1. EXTRA! EXTRA! Nonrestrictive / Non-Defining / Non-Essential / Non-Specifying
vs.
2. WHICH ONE? WHAT KIND? Restrictive/ Defining / Essential / Specifying
Anyone can create a synonym for these two categories. I just did! I added Specifying and Non-Specifying.
Comparing Dependent Clauses
We have three types of dependent clauses: 1) adverb clauses, 2) adjective clauses, and 3) noun clauses. They often look very much alike, especially adjective clauses and noun clauses. For this reason, in what follows, I occasionally compare the different types of clauses. To illustrate this point, let’s look at our relative pronouns and relative adverbs:
» who, which, that, whom, whose, when, where, why
We use all of the underlined words to begin noun clauses, and we use some of them as subordinating conjunctions. This is why we must teach students how to analyze sentences and how words function in sentences, instead of saying that “this list of words does this.”
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Our 24 Sentences for Analysis
We will analyze the following 24 sentences. As you can see, the adjective clause is underlined, and the noun that it modifies is in bold. This simple analysis may be enough for some teachers and students, but I encourage everyone to spend time on the deep analysis that follows.
1. My favorite artist is van Gogh, who was a tortured genius.
2. The senator, who I believe will be our next president, has said that she favors higher taxes.
3. That is the doctor who saved my life.
4. Noun Clause: We don’t know who did it.
5. My favorite book is Song of Solomon, which skillfully combines realism and fantasy.
6. I believe the claim, which Jim also believes.
7. The cake that was on the counter is missing.
8. I like the song that you sang.
9. The workers must replace the fence that they tore down.
10. Adverb Clause: I am happy that you succeeded.
11. Write a report on a president whom you admire.
12. I wrote my report on George Washington, whom I admire.
13. Noun Clause: Tell the class whom you admire.
14. The students whose grades improved received an award.
15. We learned all about Harriet Tubman, whose life was remarkable.
16. This is the hospital where I was born.
17. Benjamin Franklin traveled to France, where he gained support for American independence.
18. Noun Clause: Please explain where you were.
19. There was a time when I thought that, too.
20. The railroad came to town in 1889, when only 300 people lived here.
21. Noun Clause: We need to know when you left.
22. Adverb Clause: People often eat junk food when they are tired.
23. That is the reason why I went to college.
24. Noun Clause: That is why I went to college.
Now, let’s take a closer look at our 24 sentences!
A Final Note on the Dependent Clause Analysis
The examples analyze syntax (word order and function). The word count is almost always equal (e.g., 3 words = 3 words = 3 words). One word in each of those 3 words will be underlined. It’s your job to figure out how the words, including the underlined words, relate to each other. Finally, (=) does not mean (=) in a mathematical sense. In my examples, they are equal or similar in meaning or structure but probably not equal in both meaning and structure. Mathematically, they are not equal.
who: Adjective Clause (clause = both restrictive & nonrestrictive) (who = both subjects & direct objects in the dependent clause)
1. Nonrestrictive: My favorite artist is van Gogh, who was a tortured genius.
The Dependent Clause Structure: who was a tortured genius = van Gogh was a tortured genius (who/relative pronoun & van Gogh/noun = subject)
2. Nonrestrictive: The senator, who I believe will be our next president, has said that she favors higher taxes.
The Dependent Clause Structure: who I believe will be our next president = I believe who will be our next president = I believe she will be our next president (who & she = pronouns & direct objects)
3. Restrictive: That is the doctor who saved my life. (Which one? Which doctor?)
The Dependent Clause Structure: who saved my life = the doctor saved my life = (who/relative pronoun & doctor/noun = subject)
4. Compare: who: Noun Clause: We don’t know who did it. (who did it = direct object)
The Dependent Clause Structure: who did it = He did it. (who/he = pronouns & subjects)
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which: Adjective Clause (clause = only nonrestrictive) (which = both subjects & direct objects in the dependent clause)
In Elements of Style (1959), Strunk & White advised writers to go which-hunting, which means to “remove the defining whiches” and replace with that. It’s not grammatically incorrect to use which in defining clauses, but don’t do it unless it sounds much better.
5. Nonrestrictive: My favorite book is Song of Solomon, which skillfully combines realism and fantasy.
The Dependent Clause Structure: which skillfully combines realism and fantasy = Song of Solomon skillfully combines realism and fantasy (which/relative pronoun & Song of Solomon/noun = subject)
6. Nonrestrictive: I believe the claim, which Jim also believes.
The Dependent Clause Structure: which Jim believes = Jim believes which = Jim believes it (which & it = pronouns & direct objects)
We learn in grammar instruction that adjective clauses modify a specific noun. The examples in grammar books all show this relationship. But as a writing teacher and writer, I am always interested in how writers construct sentences in the real world. Here are some examples of what I find in the real world. (I could expound on these sentences, but I won’t.) Do take a close look at the “which + verb.”
» My brother and sister are away at college, which means that I finally have some peace and quiet.
» The senator grew up poor and hungry, which caused her to become strong and resilient.
» The front runner tripped and fell, which helped Jenson to record his first victory.
» Students are scoring higher than ever before, which is a good thing.
that: Adjective Clause (clause = only restrictive) (that = both subjects & direct objects in the dependent clause)
7. Restrictive: The cake that was on the counter is missing. (Which one? Which cake?)
The Dependent Clause Structure: that was on the counter = the cake was on the counter (that/relative pronoun & cake/noun = subject)
8. Restrictive: I like the song that you sang. (Which one? Which song?)
The Dependent Clause Structure: that you sang = you sang that = you sang the song (that/relative pronoun & song/noun = direct object)
that: Omitted that: We can omit the pronoun that when that is a direct object in the dependent clause. In the example above, that is the object in the dependent clause, so we can omit it.
» I like the song [that] you sang. = I like the song you sang. (Which one? Which song?)
9. Restrictive: The workers must replace the fence that they tore down. = The workers must replace the fence they tore down. (Which one? Which fence?)
The Dependent Clause Structure: that they tore down = they tore down that (that = pronoun & direct object) Omitted that: they tore down
10. Compare: that: Adverb Clause: I am happy that you succeeded. (Answers: Why? = adverb clause)
That is used to introduce both adjective clauses and adverb clauses, and the two clauses look pretty similar. Take a look:
» I like the song that you sang. (that you sang = relative/adjective clause)
» I am happy that you succeeded. (that you succeeded = adverb clause)
That is a relative pronoun in relative clauses and subordinating conjunction in adverb clauses. Let’s take a closer look at that adverb clause.
10. I am happy that you succeeded. (Answers: Why? = adverb clause)
Analysis: Independent Clause #1: I am happy + Independent Clause #2: (gives a reason /cause) You succeeded. Put simply, that is a connector that connects the two clauses and makes one a subordinate clause
whom: Adjective Clause (clause = both restrictive & nonrestrictive) (whom = only direct objects in the dependent clause)
11. Restrictive: Write a report on a president whom you admire. (Which one? Which president?)
The Dependent Clause Structure: whom you admire = You admire whom. = You admire her. (whom/relative pronoun & her/personal pronoun = direct object)
12. Nonrestrictive: I wrote my report on George Washington, whom I admire.
The Dependent Clause Structure: whom I admire = I admire whom. = I admire George Washington. (whom/relative pronoun & George Washington/noun = direct object)
13. Compare: whom: Noun Clause: Tell the class whom you admire. (whom you admire = direct object)
The Dependent Clause Structure: whom you admire = you admire whom = you admire her (whom & her = pronouns & direct objects)
whose: Adjective Clause (clause = both restrictive & nonrestrictive) (functions as a possessive adjective in the dependent clause = whose replaces one of these possessive adjectives my, our, your, his, her, its, their)
I don’t know why whose is called a relative pronoun. Whose does not replace nouns; whose replaces possessive adjectives, which are determiners. Of course, traditional grammar still calls possessive adjectives by the name possessive pronouns. Regardless, they don’t function like pronouns.
14. Restrictive: The students whose grades improved received an award. (Which ones? Which students?)
The Dependent Clause Structure: whose grades improved = their grades improved (Their is not the sentence’s subject. Their a possessive adjective, which is a determiner. Everyone seems to call whose a relative pronoun, but whose does not fill the same syntactic slot as the other relative pronouns.)
15. Nonrestrictive: We learned all about Harriet Tubman, whose life was remarkable.
The Dependent Clause Structure: whose life was remarkable = Harriet Tubman’s life was remarkable. (Once again, LIFE is the subject of these clauses. So, what are whose and Harriet Tubman’s? Well, they come right before a noun. And what usually comes right before a noun? Answer: An adjective or determiner.)
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where: Adjective Clause (clause = both restrictive & nonrestrictive) (where = functions as an adverb in the dependent clause)
16. Restrictive: This is the hospital where I was born. (Which one? Which hospital?)
The Dependent Clause Structure: where I was born = I was born where. = I was born here. (where & here = adverbs)
17. Nonrestrictive: Benjamin Franklin traveled to France, where he gained support for American independence.
The Dependent Clause Structure: where he gained support = he gained support where = he gained support there (where & there = adverbs)
18. Compare: where: Noun Clause: Please explain where you were. (where you were = direct object)
The Dependent Clause Structure: where you were = you were where = you were there (where & there = adverbs)
when: Adjective Clause (clause = both restrictive & nonrestrictive) (when = functions as an adverb in the dependent clause)
19. Restrictive: There was a time when I thought that, too. (Which one? Which time?)
The Dependent Clause Structure: when I thought that = I thought that when = I thought that before (when & before = adverbs)
20. Nonrestrictive: The railroad came to town in 1889, when only 300 people lived here. (Note: If we removed either the comma or “in 1889”, I would classify the dependent clause as an adverb clause. The comma clarifies that the writer is providing extra information about 1889 and not modifying the verb.)
The Dependent Clause Structure: when 300 people lived here = 300 people lived here when = 300 people lived here then (when & then = adverbs)
21. Compare: when: Noun Clause: We need to know when you left. (when you left = direct object)
The Dependent Clause Structure: when you left = you left when = you left early (when & early = adverbs)
22. Compare: when: Adverb Clause: People often eat junk food when they are tired. (Answers: When? Eat junk food when?)
The Dependent Clause Structure: when they are tired = when are they tire = they are tired when = they are tired now (when & now = adverbs)
why: Adjective Clause (clause = only restrictive) (why = functions as an adverb in the dependent clause)
23. Restrictive: That is the reason why I went to college. (Which one? Which reason?)
The Dependent Clause Structure: why I went to college = I went to college why = I went to college early. (why & early = adverbs)
24. Compare: why: Noun Clause: That is why I went to college. (why I went to college = noun clause/predicate noun complement)
» That is the reason why I went to college. (why I went to college = adjective clause / modifies reason)
The Dependent Clause Structure in Both: why I went to college = I went to college why = I went to college early (why & early = adverbs)
Restrictive vs. Nonrestrictive: Errors and Nuances
I’ve come across plenty of errors when it comes to restrictive and nonrestrictive. However, I also come across many instances where writers just need to figure out exactly what they are trying to say. In short, are you specifying which one? If you are not specifying which one, you will probably be providing extra information.
Sometimes the errors are clear-cut, as with this example:
1. Error: The person, who bought the boat, is happy. (Remove the commas!)
2. Correct: The person who bought the boat is happy.
Sometimes the issues are a matter of choice, clarity, or nuance, as with these sentences:
1. Correct: The bicycle, which is a classic Schwinn, is missing. (extra information)
2. Correct: My bicycle, which I keep in the garage, is missing. (“My” already specifies “which bike,” so the which clause seems to communicate extra information.)
3. Okay: The bicycle, which I keep in the garage, is missing. (The which clause could be extra information, but it seem to me that it is specifying “which bike,” which makes it restrictive.)
4. Okay: The bicycle which I keep in the garage is missing. (Go which hunting! Replace which with that.)
5. Best: The bicycle that I keep in the garage is missing. (The writer is specifying which bicycle is missing. It’s not the one chained up on the side of the house.)
Adjective Clauses Modify Nouns and Pronouns: Where?
Once again, adjective clauses modify nouns in many different locations. We find nouns in all of these places in a sentence: 1) subject, 2) predicate noun, 3) direct object, 4) indirect object, 5) object of the preposition, 6) appositive noun, and 7) direct object in phrases.
Let’s take a closer look at some example sentences:
1. Modifies the Subject: Everyone who has a ticket will be admitted. (Answers: Which ones?)
2. Modifies the Predicate Noun: It was the shot that was heard around the world. (Answers: Which one?)
3. Modifies the Direct Object: Gavrilo Princip fired another shot that was heard around the world. (Answers: Which one? or What kind?)
4. Modifies the Indirect Object: Sue gave the money to Jim, who was thrilled.
5. Modifies the Object of the Preposition: The senator seemed annoyed by the question, which was a bit out of place.
6. Modifies the Appositive Noun: Gandhi, a man who changed history, preached nonviolent resistance. (Answers: Which one?)
7. Modifies the Direct Objects in Infinitive Phrases: I simply want to own a car that works. (Answers: What kind?)
8. Modifies the Direct Objects in Present Participle Phrases: We saw loggers cutting down trees that had been growing there for hundreds of years. (Answers: What kind?)
